目录
1．无知的暴政The Tyranny of lgnorance 1
2．希腊人The Greeks 13
3．禁锢的开始The Beginning of Restraint 59
4．上帝的晨光The Twilight of the Gods 72
5．禁锢Imprisonment 100
6．纯洁的生活The Pure of Life 112
7．宗教裁判所The Inquisition 127
8．好奇的人The Curious ones 150
9．对书籍开战The War upon the Printed Word 165
10．关于写历史书的普通问题，以及写这本书的特殊问题
Concerning the Writing of History in General
and this Book in Particular 174
11．文艺复兴Renaissance 178
12．宗教改革The Reformation 188
13．伊拉斯谟Erasmus 203
14．拉伯雷Rabelais 221
15．新招牌换掉旧招牌New Signboards for Old 232
16．再洗礼派教徒The Anabaptists 257
17．索齐尼叔侄The Sozzini Family 270
18．蒙田Montaigne 282
19．阿米尼乌斯Arminius 291
20．布鲁诺Bruno 302
21．斯宾诺莎Spinoza 308
22．新天堂The New Zion 325
23．太阳王The Sun King 340
24．腓特烈大帝Frederick the Great 346
25．伏尔泰Voltaire 350
26．百科全书The Encyclopedia 373
27．革命的不宽容The Intolerance of Revolution 384
28．莱辛Lessing 395
29．拖马斯潘恩Tom Paine 411
30．最后一百年The Last Hundred Years 419
5．禁锢Imprisonment公元337年，君士坦丁大帝死了，他的三个儿子为了他们的共同遗产大打出手。他们杀掉了住在城中或城附近的所有亲戚。六岁的朱立安的父亲就在其列。当时他正和一个同父异母的哥哥一起学习一些赞美基督教的课程。长大一些后，他们被送到了远一点的地方，这样不会引起注意。那是一个偏僻的小村子，生活很枯燥，但朱立安学到了很多有用的东西。那里的邻居仍信仰着自己祖先的众神。朱立安请求投身研究生活，并得到了允许。他在尼哥美迪亚学习文学和科学，在雅典学习哲学。这时，他的同父异母的哥哥也被杀死了。他的堂兄君士坦丁乌斯把小哲学家朱立安召来，把自己的妹妹嫁给了他，然后派他去了高卢，抗击蛮族人。朱立安干得非常不错，大败敌军并把默兹河和莱茵河之间的所有土地并入了自己的省份。胜利的消息传到了皇帝耳朵里，他设下计策要除掉这个竞争对手。但朱立安很受士兵的爱戴，在他们的保护下，朱立安回到了首都，这时他的堂兄已经死了。这样，异教徒再次成了西方世界的统治者。但朱立安却要用武力使死掉的过去复活。他要重建跟原来一模一样的雅典卫城，重现伯里克利的时代。各方面的反对足以让比他更坚韧的人都疯狂、绝望，但他至少暂时信守了伟大祖先的开明原则拒绝惩罚攻击他的人。公元363年，一支仁慈的波斯之箭结束了这个人奇怪的一生。
煽动造反的天使（这是英国画家布莱克根据长篇史诗《失乐园》创作的）如果他活得再长些，他的宽容观念和他对愚蠢的憎恨，会把他变成最不宽容的人。他的基督教臣民回报他的则是永远的仇恨，用尽恶言恶语来贬低这个诚实人的名声尽管这个人一生过着朴素、严谨的生活，把所有精力都用在给臣民谋求幸福上。基督教的主教终于可以说自己是帝国的真正统治者了。他们马上开始摧毁欧洲、亚洲、非洲各个角落里残留的反对其统治的势力。开始时，异教教士被剥夺了收入来源，被迫改行。后来国王下令，所有的臣民都必须接受基督教。依旧坚持错误见解的人，依旧坚持疯狂的异端思想的人，仍旧忠实于可怕的教义的人，要么被流放，要么被处死。古代世界迅速走向了死亡，几乎一个异教神庙都没有剩下。在罗马、高卢、希腊，寺庙、大学、场馆都被毁灭了。5世纪前半叶，大主教可以毫不夸张地说，古代作者和哲学家的著作都从地球上消失了。西塞洛、苏格拉底、维吉尔、荷马都躺在成千上万个阁楼和地窖里，被人遗忘了。又过了六百年，他们才被唤醒。尽管教会战胜了异教敌人，却被很多严重问题困扰着。头脑简单、武器强大的蛮族人都接受了基督教，他们有不幸的错误观点，但他们是教会的忠诚朋友和支持者。对他们不能用一个普遍的诅咒、永恒的地狱烈火来惩罚。必须和善地劝说他们，告诉他们错了。但是，首先应该给他们一个明确的教义。在所有信仰问题上都需要有某种统一，这最终导致了著名的全基督教大会或全体会议。会议最后固定在罗马召开，从4世纪中期，就不定期地召开来决定什么是对，什么是错。这些神圣会议达成的结论，不得到教皇或他的某个代表的正式批准，是没有约束力的。有两种人，一种认为宽容是人类最大的美德，另一种谴责宽容是道德软弱的体现。应该承认，教会在解释为什么对所有异端分子都施加可怕惩罚时，推理方式听起来头头是道。迄今为止，所有的说法完全对，完全有道理。但现在是蒸汽轮船、火车的时代，有无限的经济机会。5世纪的世界要想找到一个感受不到罗马主教的势力的地方，很不容易，除非你永远放逐了你自己和你的孩子。相反，如果你真心觉得自己对耶稣的看法是对的，那么劝说教会进行修改则只是时间的问题，又何必放弃按照自己的心意进行信仰的权利呢？早期基督徒，不管是信徒还是异端分子，他们的观点都是相对的，不是绝对的，就像一群数学家既不能在X的绝对值上达成一致，也不能把彼此送上绞刑架一样。但是，自以为正确和不宽容已经完全攫取了世界。直到不久前，如果有人说我们无法知道谁对谁错，并因此宣扬宽容，还会有生命 危险。 ust before the curtain rings down for the last time upon the ancient world, a figure crosses the stage which had deserved a better fate than an untimely death and the unflattering appellation of the Apostate.The Emperor Julian, to whom I refer, was a nephew of Constantine the Great and was born in the new capital of the empire in the year 331. In 337 his famous uncle died. At once his three sons fell upon their common heritage and upon each other with the fury of famished wolves.To rid themselves of all those who might possibly lay claim to part of the spoils, they ordered that those of their relatives who lived in or near the city be murdered. Julians father was one of the victims. His mother had died a few years after his birth. In this way, at the age of six, the boy was left an orphan. An older half-brother, an invalid, shared his loneliness and his lessons. These consisted mostly of lectures upon the advantages of the Christian faith, given by a kindly but uninspired old bishop by the name of Eusebius.But when the children grew older, it was thought wiser to send them a little further away where they would be less conspicuous and might possibly escape the usual fate of junior Byzantine princes. They were removed to a little village in the heart of Asia Minor. It was a dull life, but it gave Julian a chance to learn many useful things. For his neighbors, the Cappadocian mountaineers, were a simple people and still believed in the gods of their ancestors.There was not the slightest chance that the boy would ever hold a responsible position and when he asked permission to devote himself to a life of study, he was told to go ahead.First of all he went to Nicomedia, one of the few places where the old Greek philosophy continued to be taught. There he crammed his head so full of literature and science that there was no space left for the things he had learned from Eusebius.Next he obtained leave to go to Athens, that he might study on the very spot hallowed by the recollections of Socrates and Plato and Aristotle.Meanwhile, his half-brother too had been assassinated and Constantins, his cousin and the one and only remaining son of Constantine, remembering that he and his cousin, the boy philosopher, were by this time the only two surviving male members of the imperial family, sent for Julian, received him kindly, married him, still in the kindest of spirits, to his own sister, Helena, and ordered him to proceed to Gaul and defend that province against the barbarians.It seems that Julian had learned something more practical from his Greek teachers than an ability to argue. When in the year 357 the Alamanni threatened France, he destroyed their army near Strassburg, and for good measure added all the country between the Meuse and the Rhine to his own province and went to live in Paris, filled his library with a fresh supply of books by his favorite authors and was as happy as his serious nature allowed him to be.When news of these victories reached the ears of the Emperor, little Greek fire was wasted in celebration of the event. On the contrary, elaborate plans were laid to get rid of a competitor who might be just a trifle too successful.But Julian was very popular with his soldiers. When they heard that their commander- in-chief had been ordered to return home a polite invitation to come and have ones head cut off, they invaded his palace and then and there proclaimed him emperor. At the same time they let it be known that they would kill him if he should refuse to accept.Julian, like a sensible fellow, accepted.Even at that late date, the Roman roads must have been in a remarkably good state of preservation. Julian was able to break all records by the speed with which he marched his troops from the heart of France to the shores of the Bosphorus. But ere he reached the capital, he heard that his cousin Constantius had died.And in this way, a pagan once more became ruler of the western world.Of course the thing which Julian had undertaken to do was impossible. It is a strange thing indeed that so intelligent a man should have been under the impression that the dead past could ever be brought back to life by the use of force; that the age of Pericles could be revived by reconstructing an exact replica of the Acropolis and populating the deserted groves of the Academy with professors dressed up in togas of a bygone age and talking to each other in a tongue that had disappeared from the face of the earth more than five centuries before.And yet that is exactly what Julian tried to do.All his efforts during the two short years of his reign were directed towards the re?stablishment of that ancient science which was now held in profound contempt by the majority of his people; towards the rekindling of a spirit of research in a world ruled by illiterate monks who felt certain that everything worth knowing was contained in a single book and that independent study and investigation could only lead to unbelief and hell fire; towards the requickening of the joy-of-living among those who had the vitality and the enthusiasm of ghosts.Many a man of greater tenacity than Julian would have been driven to madness and despair by the spirit of opposition which met him on all sides. As for Julian, he simply went to pieces under it. Temporarily at least he clung to the enlightened principles of his great ancestors. The Christian rabble of Antioch might pelt him with stones and mud, yet he refused to punish the city. Dull-witted monks might try to provoke him into another era of persecution, yet the Emperor persistently continued to instruct his officials not to make any martyrs.In the year 363 a merciful Persian arrow made an end to this strange career.It was the best thing that could have happened to this, the last and greatest of the Pagan rulers.Had he lived any longer, his sense of tolerance and his hatred of stupidity would have turned him into the most intolerant man of his age. Now, from his cot in the hospital, he could reflect that during his rule, not a single person had suffered death for his private opinions. For this mercy, his Christian subjects rewarded him with their undying hatred. They boasted that an arrow from one of his own soldiers a Christian legionary had killed the Emperor and with rare delicacy they composed eulogies in praise of the murderer. They told how, just before he collapsed, Julian had confessed the errors of his ways and had acknowledged the power of Christ. And they emptied the arsenal of foul epithets with which the vocabulary of the fourth century was so richly stocked to disgrace the fame of an honest man who had lived a life of ascetic simplicity and had devoted all his energies to the happiness of the people who had been entrusted to his care.When he had been carried to his grave the Christian bishops could at last consider themselves the veritable rulers of the Empire and immediately began the task of destroying whatever opposition to their domination might remain in isolated corners of Europe, Asia and Africa.Under Valentinian and Valens, two brothers who ruled from 364 to 378, an edict was passed forbidding all Romans to sacrifice animals to the old Gods. The pagan priests were thereby deprived of their revenue and forced to look for other employment.But the regulations were mild compared to the law by which Theodosius ordered all his subjects not only to accept the Christian doctrines, but to accept them only in the form laid down by the universal or Catholic church of which he had made himself the protector and which was to have a monopoly in all matters spiritual.All those who after the promulgation of this ordinance stuck to their erroneous opinionswho persisted in their insane heresieswho remained faithful to their scandalous doctrineswere to suffer the consequences of their willful disobedience and were to be exiled or put to death.From then on the old world marched rapidly to its final doom. In Italy and Gaul and Spain and England hardly a pagan temple remained. They were either wrecked by the contractors who needed stones for new bridges and streets and city-walls and water-works, or they were remodeled to serve as meeting places for the Christians. The thousands of golden and silver images which had been accumulated since the beginning of the Republic were publicly confiscated and privately stolen and such statues as remained were made into mortar.The Serapeum of Alexandria, a temple which Greeks and Romans and Egyptians alike had held in the greatest veneration for more than six centuries, was razed to the ground. There remained the university, famous all over the world ever since it had been founded by Alexander the Great. It had continued to teach and explain the old philosophies and as a result attracted a large number of students from all parts of the Mediterranean. When it was not closed at the behest of the Bishop of Alexandria, the monks of his diocese took the matter into their own hands. They broke into the lecture rooms, lynched Hypatia, the last of the great Platonic teachers, and threw her mutilated body into the streets where it was left to the mercy of the dogs.In Rome things went no better.The temple of Jupiter was closed, the Sibylline books, the very basis of the old Roman faith, were burned. The capitol was left a ruin.In Gaul, under the leadership of the famous bishop of Tours, the old Gods were declared to be the predecessors of the Christian devils and their temples were therefore ordered to be wiped off the face of the earth.If, as sometimes happened in remote country districts, the peasants rushed forth to the defense of their beloved shrines, the soldiers were called out and by means of the ax and the gallows made an end to such insurrections of Satan.In Greece, the work of destruction proceeded more slowly. But finally in the year 394, the Olympic games were abolished. As soon as this center of Greek national life after an uninterrupted existence of eleven hundred and seventy years had come to an end, the rest was comparatively easy. One after the other, the philosophers were expelled from the country. Finally, by order of the Emperor Justinian, the University of Athens was closed. The funds established for its maintenance were confiscated. The last seven professors, deprived of their livelihood, fled to Persia where King Chosroes received them hospitably and allowed them to spend the rest of their days peacefully playing the new and mysterious Indian game called chess.In the first half of the fifth century, archbishop Chrysostomus could truthfully state that the works of the old authors and philosophers had disappeared from the face of the earth. Cicero and Socrates and Virgil and Homer not to mention the mathematicians and the astronomers and the physicians who were an object of special abomination to all good Christians lay forgotten in a thousand attics and cellars. Six hundred years were to go by before they were called back to life, and in the meantime the world would be obliged to subsist on such literary fare as it pleased the theologians to place before it.A strange diet, and not exactly in the jargon of the medical faculty a balanced one.For the Church, although triumphant over its pagan enemies, was beset by many and serious tribulations. The poor peasant in Gaul and Lusitania, clamoring to burn incense in honor of his ancient Gods, could be silenced easily enough. He was a heathen and the law was on the side of the Christian. But the Ostrogoth or the Alaman or the Longobard who declared that Arius, the priest of Alexandria, was right in his opinion upon the true nature of Christ and that Athanasius, the bishop of that same city and Ariusbitter enemy, was wrong of vice versa the Longobard or Frank who stoutly maintained that Christ was not of the same nature but of a like nature only with God or vice versa the Vandal or the Saxon who insisted that Nestor spoke the truth when he called the Virgin Mary the mother of Christ and not the mother of God or vice versa the Burgundian or Frisian who denied that Jesus was possessed of two natures, one human and one divine or vice versaall these simpleminded but strong-armed barbarians who had accepted Christianity and were, outside of their unfortunate errors of opinion, staunch friends and supporters of the Churchthese indeed could not be punished with a general anathema and a threat of perpetual hell fire. They must be persuaded gently that they were wrong and must be brought within the fold with charitable expressions of love and devotion. But before all else they must be given a definite creed that they might know for once and for all what they must hold to be true and what they must reject as false.It was that desire for unity of some sort in all matters pertaining to the faith which finally caused those famous gatherings which have become known as Oecumenical or Universal Councils, and which since the middle of the fourth century have been called together at irregular intervals to decide what doctrine is right and what doctrine contains the germ of heresy and should therefore be adjudged erroneous, unsound, fallacious and heretical.The first of those Oecumenical councils was held in the town of Nicaea, not far from the ruins of Troy, in the year 325. The second one, fifty-six years later, was held in Constantinople. The third one in the year 431 in Ephesus. Thereafter they followed each other in rapid succession in Chalcedon, twice again in Constantinople, once more in Nicaea and finally once again in Constantinople in the year 869.After that, however, they were held in Rome or in some particular town of western Europe designated by the Pope. For it was generally accepted from the fourth century on that although the emperor had the technical right to call together such meetings a privilege which incidentally obliged him to pay the traveling expenses of his faithful bishops that very serious attention should be paid to the suggestions made by the powerful Bishop of Rome. And although we do not know with any degree of certainty who occupied the chair in Nicaea, all later councils were dominated by the Popes and the decisions of these holy gatherings were not regarded as binding unless they had obtained the official approval of the supreme pontiff himself or one of his delegates.Hence we can now say farewell to Constantinople and travel to the more congenial regions of the west.The field of Tolerance and Intolerance has been fought over so repeatedly by those who hold tolerance the greatest of all human virtues and those who denounce it as an evidence of moral weakness, that I shall pay very little attention to the purely theoretical aspects of the case. Nevertheless it must be confessed that the champions of the Church follow a plausible line of reasoning when they try to explain away the terrible punishments which were inflicted upon all heretics.A church, so they argue, is like any other organization. It is almost like a village or a tribe or a fortress. There must be a commander-in-chief and there must be a definite set of laws and bylaws, which all members are forced to obey. It follows that those who swear allegiance to the Church make a tacit vow both to respect the commander-in-chief and to obey the law. And if they find it impossible to do this, they must suffer the consequences of their own decisions and get out.All of which, so far, is perfectly true and reasonable.If today a minister feels that he can no longer believe in the articles of faith of the Baptist Church, he can turn Methodist, and if for some reason he ceases to believe in the creed as laid down by the Methodist Church, he can become a Unitarian or a Catholic or a Jew, or for that matter, a Hindoo or a Turk. The world is wide. The door is open. There is no one outside his own hungry family to say him nay.But this is an age of steamships and railroad trains and unlimited economic opportunities.The world of the fifth century was not quite so simple. It was far from easy to discover a region where the influence of the Bishop of Rome did not make itself felt. One could of course go to Persia or to India, as a good many heretics did, but the voyage was long and the chances of survival were small. And this meant perpetual banishment for ones self and ones children.And finally, why should a man surrender his good right to believe what he pleased if he felt sincerely that his conception of the idea of Christ was the right one and that it was only a question of time for him to convince the Church that its doctrines needed a slight modification?For that was the crux of the whole matter.The early Christians, both the faithful and the heretics, dealt with ideas which had a relative and not a positive value.A group of mathematicians, sending each other to the gallows because they cannot agree upon the absolute value of x would be no more absurd than a council of learned theologians trying to define the undefinable and endeavoring to reduce the substance of God to a formula.But so thoroughly had the spirit of self-righteousness and in tolerance got hold of the world that until very recently all those who advocated tolerance upon the basis that we cannot ever possibly know who is right and who is wrong did so at the risk of their lives and usually couched their warnings in such careful Latin sentences that not more than one or two of their most intelligent readers ever knew what they meant.??
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